Friday, March 4, 2011
Group Decision Making & Problem Solving
- A common occurrence is to confuse Decision Making with Problem Solving. They are two different functions.
- Group Decision making results in reaching a conclusion where the group takes a position, holds an opinion, makes a judgment, or takes an action.
- A decision may or may not solve a problem.
- Decision making involves asking the four W questions:
- Who?
- What?
- Where?
- When?
- Problem solving involves analyzing a problem and developing a plan or course of action to remedy the problem or minimize its impact/damage.
- Problem solving questions a group should ask will include:
- Why?
- How?
- Group Decision Making & Problem Solving: Pg. 236
Decision Making: | A judgment the group chooses an alternative. | Ask who, what, where, and when. |
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Problem Solving: | A process: The group develops a plan.
| Asks Why and How? Why doesn’t our promotional campaign attract students? How should we publicize the colleges new programs? |
Decision Making Methods
o Voting
§ Seeks Majority Rule
· Some members win, while other members loose. If the decision is won by 51% of voters, then the other 49% might not be happy about it.
§ Seeks Two-Thirds Vote
· At least twice as many group members must vote for it and ensures a significant number of voters will be satisfied by the decision.
§ Voting works best when:
· A group is pressed for time
· The issue is not highly controversial
· A group is too large to use any other decision-making method.
· A groups constitution or rules require voting on certain types of decisions.
o Consensus Seeking PG. 239
§ A group reaches a consensus when every group member agrees to support a decision or action. This is a decision in which all members find at least minimally acceptable as a means of accomplishing some mutual goal.
§ When reached, a consensus can unite and energize a group.
§ Consensus does not work well for all group situations. If a leader has too much power over a group and members were unwilling to express their authentic ideas/opinions, then it would not work well. Consensus seeking works best where members have equal status in groups that create a climate in which everyone feels comfortable about expressing their views.
(Decision Making Methods: PG. 238)
Types of Structured Problem solving
Through trial, error, and experience, groups will discover what method of problem solving works best for them. Some examples are:
- The Standard Agenda: “Reflective thinking Procedures”
- The Functional Perspective: “Communication behavior Procedures”
- The Single Question Format: “Question Answer Procedures” (p.243)
- The Standard Agenda: “Reflective thinking Procedures”
- The Functional Perspective: “Communication behavior Procedures”
- The Single Question Format: “Question Answer Procedures” (p.243)
The Standard Agenda
“The founding father of problem solving procedures is John Dewey, a U.S.
In a standard agenda the most important thing is to work on understanding the problem, and then take into account all the different possible options for resolving the problem.
The main points of this agenda are:
1) Making sure that everyone understands the task
2) Identifying the Problem
3) Fact Finding: Understanding all facts and aspects of the problem
4) Solution Criteria: Understanding what the solution will entail, and to see if it truly will resolve the issue
5) Solution Suggestions: Identifying known solutions, discussing solutions, and coming up with new ones
6) Evaluating the solutions completely and then choosing the best one
7) Put the solution into effect
In a standard agenda the most important thing is to work on understanding the problem, and then take into account all the different possible options for resolving the problem.
The main points of this agenda are:
1) Making sure that everyone understands the task
2) Identifying the Problem
3) Fact Finding: Understanding all facts and aspects of the problem
4) Solution Criteria: Understanding what the solution will entail, and to see if it truly will resolve the issue
5) Solution Suggestions: Identifying known solutions, discussing solutions, and coming up with new ones
6) Evaluating the solutions completely and then choosing the best one
7) Put the solution into effect
The Functional Perspective
The functional perspective is very much like the standard agenda, but with the addition of preparation, competence, and communication.
1) Preparation is something the group does before it begins the problem solving. Preparation means that the group will: agree to “make the best possible decision” (p. 247), recognize all the resources they have available to problem solve, take into consideration obstacles, and come to a consensus on procedures and rules.
2) Competence means the group will: “understand the issues, determine solution criteria, identify [a wide range] of solutions, analyze the pros and cons, and select the best option.” (p. 248)
3) Communication is essential to a group’s success in problem solving. Group members must all have sharp thinking and speaking skill, as well as strong behavioral traits. They must also follow all the agreed upon rules, and base their arguments and solutions on facts and a desire for the success of the group as a whole.
1) Preparation is something the group does before it begins the problem solving. Preparation means that the group will: agree to “make the best possible decision” (p. 247), recognize all the resources they have available to problem solve, take into consideration obstacles, and come to a consensus on procedures and rules.
2) Competence means the group will: “understand the issues, determine solution criteria, identify [a wide range] of solutions, analyze the pros and cons, and select the best option.” (p. 248)
3) Communication is essential to a group’s success in problem solving. Group members must all have sharp thinking and speaking skill, as well as strong behavioral traits. They must also follow all the agreed upon rules, and base their arguments and solutions on facts and a desire for the success of the group as a whole.
The Single Question Format
The single question format is much like the other problem solving methods, but it is the method that most people use naturally. (it is not as in depth)
In the single question format a group would:
1) Identify the problem: with a single question of- what is the goal?
2) Create a collaborative setting: Unique to this method, it creates a “we will” (p. 250) environment
3) Analyze the issue
4) Identify possible solutions: 2 or 3 at most
5) Answer the single question
In the single question format a group would:
1) Identify the problem: with a single question of- what is the goal?
2) Create a collaborative setting: Unique to this method, it creates a “we will” (p. 250) environment
3) Analyze the issue
4) Identify possible solutions: 2 or 3 at most
5) Answer the single question
Problem Solving Realities
Though having procedures and methods to problem solve can help groups immensely, “Group decision making in the real world is often messy” (p.260) and there are other things to take into consideration like:
- Politics
- Preexisting Preferences
- Power
Politics
Politics can cause people to bring into groups intense emotions or hidden agendas. The function of a group may also be disrupted by an individual driving the group for personal agendas, or keeping the group from moving forward for the same reason. Some groups are not going to have everyone working towards the same goal due to politics
Problem solving method for Politics conflict: Have clear procedures
Preexisting Preferences
People come into groups for many different reasons, and purposes, and from many different backgrounds. In every group individuals will have preexisting preferences. This can cause problems because this limits the ability to have an open mind, even if it is not intentional.
Problem solving method for preexisting preferences conflict: “a combination of open discussions, clear goals, and the use of procedures.” (p. 260)
Power
Power can be very helpful to a group, or detrimental depending on how it is used. People with good intention and strong influence can help guide a group to their goals; however, an individual with bad ideas, suggestions, and misguided actions can derail a whole group.
This can be a harder problem to solve, but can be done if the rest of the group can step in to guide the group back on course, and take back control of the power influence in the group.
- Politics
- Preexisting Preferences
- Power
Politics
Politics can cause people to bring into groups intense emotions or hidden agendas. The function of a group may also be disrupted by an individual driving the group for personal agendas, or keeping the group from moving forward for the same reason. Some groups are not going to have everyone working towards the same goal due to politics
Problem solving method for Politics conflict: Have clear procedures
Preexisting Preferences
People come into groups for many different reasons, and purposes, and from many different backgrounds. In every group individuals will have preexisting preferences. This can cause problems because this limits the ability to have an open mind, even if it is not intentional.
Problem solving method for preexisting preferences conflict: “a combination of open discussions, clear goals, and the use of procedures.” (p. 260)
Power
Power can be very helpful to a group, or detrimental depending on how it is used. People with good intention and strong influence can help guide a group to their goals; however, an individual with bad ideas, suggestions, and misguided actions can derail a whole group.
This can be a harder problem to solve, but can be done if the rest of the group can step in to guide the group back on course, and take back control of the power influence in the group.
Decision-Making Questions
- Decision-Making Questions: Pg 239-241
- Decision-making and problem-solving groups often need a defined goal. One way to help the group find its focus is to phrase the goal as a question to be answered. There are four basic types of questions that can achieve this:
- Questions of Fact:
- These questions have a clear and identifiable answer. It can be composed of true/false scenarios, question whether or not an event occurred, or what caused an event.
- Example: Cookie Jar Safety & Security Summit
- Questions of Fact:
- Decision-making and problem-solving groups often need a defined goal. One way to help the group find its focus is to phrase the goal as a question to be answered. There are four basic types of questions that can achieve this:
Did the new anti-theft device prevent intruders from
accessing the cookie jar after hours last night?
Yes or No?
· Question of Conjecture:
o These questions are of a forecasting/prediction nature. The group should seek reliable data, educated opinions, and factual information to build their forecast.
o Example: Will the modifications on the CM-5000 anti-theft device prevent your children from stealing cookies out of the cookie jar next weekend?
· Question of Value:
o These questions can be the most difficult for groups to answer because they depend on the attitude, beliefs, and values of the group members. Often the answers can be ambiguous or grey, liable to change depending on the situation. They strive to answer if something is good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral.
o Example: Is it wrong if we electrify the lid of the cookie jar? How will God feel if our children are shocked to find the cookie jar empty?
· Question of Policy:
o These questions are based on institutional or organizational guidelines and procedures. They provide structure to the way a group or persons operate. Often these questions require answers to subquestions dealing with facts, conjecture, and values.
o Example: How do we make certain that our anti-theft cookie jar industry treats all cookie thieves equally?
DECISION MAKING METHODS
· Decision Making Methods: PG. 238
o Voting
§ Seeks Majority Rule
· Some members win, while other members loose. If the decision is won by 51% of voters, then the other 49% might not be happy about it.
§ Seeks Two-Thirds Vote
· At least twice as many group members must vote for it and ensures a significant number of voters will be satisfied by the decision.
§ Voting works best when:
· A group is pressed for time
· The issue is not highly controversial
· A group is too large to use any other decision-making method.
· A groups constitution or rules require voting on certain types of decisions.
o Consensus Seeking PG. 239
§ A group reaches a consensus when every group member agrees to support a decision or action. This is a decision in which all members find at least minimally acceptable as a means of accomplishing some mutual goal.
§ When reached, a consensus can unite and energize a group.
§ Consensus does not work well for all group situations. If a leader has too much power over a group and members were unwilling to express their authentic ideas/opinions, then it would not work well. Consensus seeking works best where members have equal status in groups that create a climate in which everyone feels comfortable about expressing their views.
- Decision-Making Questions: Pg 239-240
- Decision-making and problem-solving groups often need a defined goal. One way to help the group find its focus is to phrase the goal as a question to be answered. There are four basic types of questions that can achieve this:
- Questions of Fact:
- These questions have a clear and identifiable answer. It can be composed of true/false scenarios, question whether or not an event occurred, or what caused an event.
- Example: Cookie Jar Safety & Security Summit
- Questions of Fact:
- Decision-making and problem-solving groups often need a defined goal. One way to help the group find its focus is to phrase the goal as a question to be answered. There are four basic types of questions that can achieve this:
Did the new anti-theft device prevent intruders from
accessing the cookie jar after hours last night?
Yes or No?
· Question of Conjecture:
o These questions are of a forecasting/prediction nature. The group should seek reliable data, educated opinions, and factual information to build their forecast.
o Example: Will the modifications on the CM-5000 anti-theft device prevent your children from stealing cookies out of the cookie jar next weekend?
· Question of Value:
o These questions can be the most difficult for groups to answer because they depend on the attitude, beliefs, and values of the group members. Often the answers can be ambiguous or grey, liable to change depending on the situation. They strive to answer if something is good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral.
o Example: Is it wrong if we electrify the lid of the cookie jar? How will God feel if our children are shocked to find the cookie jar empty?
· Question of Policy:
o These questions are based on institutional or organizational guidelines and procedures. They provide structure to the way a group or persons operate. Often these questions require answers to subquestions dealing with facts, conjecture, and values.
o Example: How do we make certain that our anti-theft cookie jar industry treats all cookie thieves equally?
· Creative Problem Solving: Pg 252-
o Creativity has two main components.
§ The nonjudgmental process of searching for, separating, and connecting unrelated ideas and elements and
§ Combining these elements into new ideas.
· There are many different ways to facilitate Creative problem solving, although they share four basic stages
o Investigation
§ Group members gather information and attempt to understand the nature and causes of a problem
o Imagination
§ Group members engage in free thinking by removing procedural and mental road blocks. The group generates and discusses new and unusual ideas.
o Incubation
§ The group allows a period of time in which the imaginative ideas can percolate and recombine in new ways. During this time the group may break or focus on another topic or issue
o Insight
§ The “Aha!” moment occurs and a new approach or solution emerges. Group members recognize the breakthrough moment and may build upon or improve the idea.
· Three Creative Problem Solving Methods
o Brainstorming
o Decreased Options Technique
o Nominal Group Technique
· Brainstorming
o Concept introduced by Alex Osborn in 1953.
o A technique used for generating as many ideas as possible in a short period of time.
o Two key principles for brainstorming:
§ Deferring judgment improves the quality of input and,
§ The quantity of ideas and output breeds quality.
· The first ideas are typically the most obvious and following ideas are usually more creative.
· Guidelines for Brainstorming
o Sharpen the focus
§ Start with a clear statement of the problem
§ Give members a few minutes to think about possible ideas before beginning the session.
o For All to See
§ Assign someone to write down and display the group’s ideas.
o Number the ideas
o Encourage Creativity
§ Wild and crazy ideas are welcome
§ Quantity is more important than quality
o All Input, no putdowns
§ Don’t analyze, oppose, or praise any members ideas.
§ Don’t defend, discuss, or clarify ideas at this stage.
§ Keep ideas flowing – evaluation is later.
o Build and Jump
§ Build on or modify ideas offered by others.
§ Combine multiple ideas into a new idea.
§ Jump back and forth between ideas or start new lines of thoughts.
· While brainstorming is popular and can be powerful, it’s effectiveness depends on the nature of the group and its members.
· Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
o Concept introduced by Andrew H. Van de Ven.
o Method of maximizing participation in problem solving and program planning groups while minimizing some of the interpersonal challenges associated with group dynamics.
o The term “Nominal” means: Existing in name only
o The nominal group is a collection of people who, at first, work individually, then collectively.
o Two separate phases in NGT sessions:
§ Idea generation Phase
· Each member writes his or her ideas on a piece of paper
· Each member presents one idea from his or her list.
· A scribe records the ideas in full view of other members.
· Round-robin listing of ideas continues until all ideas have been shared.
§ Idea Evaluation and Voting Phase
· Members discuss each idea before independent voting
· Members can explain and support/not support each idea listed
· Members vote by ranking or rating ideas privately and in writing
· The group decision is the mathematically pooled outcome of the individual votes
o NGT is often used to rank job applicants, establish budget priorities, and to reach consensus.
o NGT fosters equal participation during idea generation and discussion/evaluation during the second phase.
o NGT requires a great deal of time and a skilled facilitator. It can help offset dominant members but frustrate members who desire spontaneous interaction.
Decreasing Options Technique (DOT)
A technique that assists groups in refining a large number of suggestions into a manageable group of ideas.
Four basic steps to DOT:
Generate Ideas
Group members record ideas related to the topic of discussion. Ideas should be written separately from one another for organizational purposes.
Post Ideas
Post all of the ideas in view of the group
Sort Ideas
Categorize the ideas by similarities
Dot the ideas
Prioritize the ideas using a dot system. Each group member should be given 10 dots, placing their dots on the ideas that they feel are of greatest priority.
After all dots have been placed, begin eliminating the ideas that are of lesser priority.
The DOT option is useful when time is limited for discussion or when topics might be controversial and one or few topics may chew up all the available time. Also it can help balance creative sessions where dominant members may prevent or limit contributions from other group members.
Enhancing Group Creativity
Regardless of your approach to creative problem solving, there are four recommended strategies to assist with all of them.
Control Judgment
Nothing inhibits group creativity more than negativity. Keeping the creative process open and avoiding premature closure helps fuel the innovation.
Encourage Innovation
Inertia
We’ve done it before
Instruction
Someone showed us how to do it
Imitation
We’ve seen how it’s done
Innovation
We have developed a new way to do it
Ask “What If.”
This questions can help set aside preconceived notions about an idea.
Use Metaphors
Answers to many problems already exist, they’re just hiding in other areas of our lives. Using metaphors can help explain and guide creative thinking.
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